European _total air connectivity _still -16% below pre-pandemic (2019) levels in 2023 – meaning that travellers from European airports continue to see fewer options while air fares have increased at twice the rate of inflation.

• The performance gap between direct connectivity (-4%) and indirect connectivity (-22%), points to recovery patterns becoming structural – in particular the significant expansion of ultra-Low Cost Carriers (LCCs) and the relative retrenchment of Full Service Carriers (FSCs).

Istanbul, Amsterdam-Schiphol and London-Heathrow stand atop the airport podium for direct connectivity – with the Turkish hub being the only one having exceeded its pre-pandemic (2019) direct connectivity.

• Only 34% of Europe’s airports have recovered or exceeded their pre-pandemic (2019) _direct connectivity _levels.
• Athens, Palma de Mallorca, Lisbon, Dublin and Istanbul- Sabiha Gökçen have recovered or exceeded their pre-pandemic (2019) _direct connectivity _– along with smaller and regional airports. This reflects the continued strength of leisure and VFR demand (which for now defies inflationary pressures), with airlines targeting these markets for capacity deployment.

_Direct connectivity _between Europe and all other world regions has recovered, with the exception of Asia-Pacific.

• Direct connectivity to Africa (+8%) and the Middle East (+7%) has exceeded pre-pandemic (2019) levels, followed by _direct connectivity _to North America (-1%), Latin America (-1%) and Asia- Pacific (-18%).

_European hub connectivity _remains -25% below pre-pandemic (2019) levels, also reflecting structural changes in connectivity patterns and the aviation market as a whole.

• Frankfurt remains the top airport globally for hub connectivity, followed by Istanbul and Dallas Fort Worth.
• Hub connectivity shrinkage, hub downgrades and considerable variations in performance have become key features of the European market.

Low Cost Carriers (LCCs) account for all of Europe’s gains in _direct connectivity _over the past 10 years. Their share of _direct connectivity _on the intra- European market now stands at 46%.

• When compared to pre-pandemic (2019), LCCs exceed their _direct connectivity _levels on the entire European market by +12%, whereas Full Service Carriers (FSCs) are at -13%.
• Large airline groups have increased their share of _direct connectivity _at their hub airports to 66%, while LCCs have reinforced their position at regional and smaller airports – pointing to a potential re-segmentation of the aviation market.

Türkiye, the Western Balkans and other countries relying on inbound tourism significantly outperform in their recovery of air connectivity.

• 5 national markets have now exceeded their pre-pandemic (2019) _total air connectivity _levels: Türkiye, Cyprus, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Albania and Greece. Ukraine has lost all air connectivity while international sanctions have resulted in much lower levels of _total air connectivity _for Belarus and Russia.
• The UK has overtaken Spain as the European country with the highest level of direct connectivity, with Germany coming in the third position.

Looking ahead, a combination of factors is set to challenge the historical progression and resilience of air connectivity: the aviation market moving back to more segmentation, lack of infrastructure capacity, climate action and related policies as well as geopolitical risks and fragmentation.

1. Passenger Perspective of Air Connectivity
2. European Air Connectivity - Snapshot
3. Direct Connectivity
4. Connectivity to Other World Regions
5. Hub Connectivity
6. Connectivity and Airline Business Models
7. National Markets
8. What Next for Air Connectivity?